The Abbey Theater of Dublin, also known as the Irish National Theater, was founded with the aspirations of developing the Irish literary world, continuing the bardic traditions of Celtic Ireland, and enhancing the cultural identity of the nation through dramatic art. It was created through the entangling determination of those who sought national independence and those who sought intellectual freedom. Together they established foundations, conquered their barriers and then grew beyond them into newly defined roles.
The creation of the Abbey Theater spawned from the emotions of the political and cultural nationalism which characterized the Gaelic revival. This movement was part of a general movement of the eighteenth century beginning in the British Isles with the nations of England, Scotland, Whales and Brittany, and spreading to Germany and France, two nations connected through the Arthurian legends (Hunt, 11). In Ireland, the revival was geared towards national independence. In its struggle to escape Anglican suppression, the Gaelic revival sought to revitalize the Irish language and develop Irish literature. To achieve this independence, the desires of political and cultural nationalism were joined. The necessity of this partnership is captured in a quote from historian Peter Costello which states "The ideal of Ireland which motivated the very small group of men who plotted the Easter Rising had its origins in the materials which had been recovered by Irish scholars and recreated by Irish poets (Hunt, 13)." The impact of the Irish language's renewal as a result of this revival presents itself clearly in the distinctive form of expression found in Irish Theater. The language revival was firmly supported by the founding of the Gaelic League in 1893. Douglas Hyde formed this organization to preserve Irish as the national language and promote Gaelic literature (Hunt, 16).
The dramatic literary movement was continued through the developments of literary playwrights such as W.B. Yeats, J. M. Synge, and Lady Gregory. The goal of these artists, as Lady Gregory stated in her essay Our Irish Theater, was to "bring upon the stage the deeper thoughts and emotions of Ireland" and the "freedom to experiment which is not found in theaters of England" (Harrington, 378). Without this freedom, these authors believed that art or literature could not succeed (Harrington, 378). Even the support of the Catholic church, which aligned itself with Ireland's independence movement and Gaelic revival, threatened complete autonomy in the theater. The puritan outlook became an intangible restraint on the intellectual freedom they sought. The church also followed the strict definition of an Irishman as one of Gaelic ancestry and the Catholic faith, therefore excluding artists of English descent such as Yeats as being a true Irishman (Hunt, 15).
Through the turn of the century Yeats and his companions pursued the creation of literary dramatic art. In 1899, Yeats formed the Irish Literary Theater to promote Celtic drama and gain enthusiasm (Holloway, 4). Lady Gregory managed to persuade a member of Parliament, W.E.H. Leeky, to introduce a new clause into the Irish local government which would empower the Municipality of Dublin to license public halls for theatrical performance. This clause opened opportunities for the small group who'd been shut out of the Royal, the Gaiety, and the Queens theaters(Hunt, 26). In February 1903, Yeats founded the Irish National Theater Society. Yeats was president with George Russel, Douglas Hyde, and Maud Gonne as vice-presidents. The objectives of this group were ". . . to create an Irish National Theater, to act and produce plays in Irish or English, by Irish writers, or on Irish subjects . . . as well to educate and interest the public of this country in higher respects of dramatic art (Hunt, 39)." Yeats' ambition to create a National theater was eventually realized in December of 1904, when the former Mechanics Institute was purchased for reconstruction into a theater and let to the Society free of rent (Hunt, 57).
The lease was purchased by a Miss A.E.F. Horniman, a wealthy widowed friend of Yeats and a strong supporter of the literary theater. Miss Horniman was an English woman who stood as dictator over the figures of Yeats, Gregory and Synge through the Irish National Theater Society and into their direction of the Abbey Theater. She was also adamant in her request that the theater be a place for art at the grandest level and not a Nationalist platform from which to preach. However, although she had a fond appreciation of the arts and was against the politics of an independent Ireland, Miss Horniman held a keen interest in the role she played in the political tendencies of the theatrical world. Through her manipulation of funds, she molded the Irish Theater in the manner she wanted and determined the course of Ireland's theatrical future. (Frazier, 150-152).
For 170 pounds a year and a 99 year lease, the building on the corner of Lower Abbey Street and Marlborough Street was no longer the abandoned center for the Mechanic Institute (Hunt, 1). Under the supervision of Joseph Holloway and at a cost of 1300 pounds, Miss Horniman transformed the building, which over time housed the General Emigration Agent, the Dublin Total Abstinence Society, and a morgue, into a small ornate theater (Frazier, 108-172). It was a little theater made by Irish hands, with Irish materials, for Ireland (Frazier, 173).
Even after the reconstruction, it lacked the basic necessities of a theater such as a scene dock, a workshop, paint- frame, or wardrobe. Scenery had to be painted on the stage and moved inconveniently during rehearsals (Hunt 58-59). Eventually, old stables were acquired to use as scene docks attached to the side of the theater. Even the first rehearsal lacked electricity in all areas but the stage (Holloway, 44). Obviously, this simple tenement that Horniman had rescued and redone did not compare to the elaborate technical scheme's and eloquent styles of European national theaters; however, it was the first bold step towards Ireland's cultural independence.
Membership in the Abbey initially consisted of a collective group who shared equal voting rights and responsibilities (Hunt, 40). They were attracted to the Society for various reasons. Some were there for their love of the stage and a commitment to the National cause. Others were solely interested in the stardom and fame. The fuel which seemed to keep this group going was the desire for independence in their artform. The prominent players of the group include the Fay brothers, the Allgood sisters, and the lead actress Mary Walker, as well as the five members of her family who held various positions throughout the theater (Frazier, 111). The Fay brothers, W.G. and Frank, were involved in stage-management, scene-painting, actor training, and key dramatic roles. They were involved from the very start of the movement, moved by an interest in the theater, but even more by the national cause they fought to maintain. The Allgood sisters came from a theatrical background and were "more stage-struck than professional, more professional than patriotic." (Frazier, 111) In the summer of 1902, this group of players banded together in agreement that they would all work equally and maintain amateur status until they had made enough money to become a professional group independent of patrons. (Frazier, 111)
The grand opening of the Abbey Theater occurred on Tuesday 27 December 1904 with a program consisting of three one-act plays. The first was Yeat's On Baile's Strand, the second was Lady Gregory's Spreading the News, and the last was a revival of Cathleen Ni Houlihan. (Hunt, 61) The audience arrived by both cart and train. Those who were more wealthy arrived by carriage on Marlborough Street and entered through a more exclusive entrance. On their ascents into their stalls to see Yeats' On Baile's Strand, they entered their vestibule by way of a stairwell adorned by a variety of portraits by Yeats and a Celtic Art Deco of Sarah Purser's stained- glass three window design. (Frazier, 172) The middle class would take the O'Connell Street Terminus, walk the distance to the theater and enter awkwardly through a separate entrance. In ignorant appreciation, they would stair wondrously at the decor and if they could afford the one shilling to get in, they would pass to see Lady Gregory's Spreading the News. (Frazier, 172) The way that Miss Horniman employed her money caused the Abbey to "make the rich feel at home, and the poor- on a first visit- out of place." (Frazier, 172)
Miss Horniman was ridiculed for her ticket prices that reflected a denial of the poor. Commonly in Irish theaters there were sixpenny seats that could be bought in the pit. According to Miss Horniman, cheap seats were not provided in order to "prevent cheap entertainment from being given that would lessen the value of the hall." (Hunt, 59) However, the true reason seemed to be to those who screamed "undemocratic" and "unpatriotic," that Horniman and Yeats meant to regulate the audience . They wanted to draw in the class of people who would abhor the Irish nationalism, in order to see that their shows were not too overpolitical. They meant to attract the more wealthy crowd of the crown. (Frazier, 174)
Miss Horniman's plot to create an elite crowd in her theater resulted in a near economic failure and a blatant insult to the value of the sixpenny to the working majority of Ireland. The conditions of Ireland at the time were horrible. Wages were miserable, infant mortality rate was the lowest in the British Isles, 20% of the workers were unemployed, and 30% lived in the slums. Yet, these were the people who formed the Gaelic League, who joined the political clubs and theater groups. They were the crowd in support of a National Theater. They could not afford even the cheapest ticket though. The price of a shilling ticket was asking for a half-days wages for one night of entertainment, when one days' worth of salary barely met the minimum for survival. As D.P. Moran of the Leader stated, "Abbey prices placed the theater outside the sphere of utility of the Gaelic League."(Frazier, 173)
As a result of the revenue lost through high ticket prices, unpopular location, and the lack of interest on the part of popular artists in true art, the amateur status of the actors had to change. One week of entertainment a month along with a couple rental periods for lectures was not enough to support the Abbey. The players needed to turn professional in order to obtain a source of revenue through touring. This prospect involved sacrificing secure incomes with permanent jobs and the independence they had struggled to maintain for so long. They were set up on a tour by Horniman, who would pay their salaries, and were sent through England on their first tour on November 27, 1906. (Hunt, 65) Simultaneously, the Board of Directors of the Irish National Theater Society was formed consisting of Yeats, Synge, and Lady Gregory. This action put an end to the cooperative management that distributed the decision making among the actors and put the power in the hands of the playwrights. The new society was named the National Theater Society Limited. (Hunt, 65)
At this point the initial composition of the Abbey Theater and the Irish National Theater Society changed. The players were forced to sacrifice their cause due to the political restraints of Horniman, a somewhat ironic case signifying Ireland's endless struggle to escape from the realm of the crown. The playwrights, however, gained a renewed independence and the freedom which they desired. The Abbey Theater continued into the twentieth century, meeting with controversy and expanding its role to adjust to the cultural and political shifts of the nation and the world. It's main focus, that of presenting Ireland's emotion and culture through dramatic literature, has continued.
Frazier, Adrian. Behind the Scenes: Yeats, Horniman, and the Struggle for the Abbey Theater. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990.
Gregory, Lady. "Our Irish Theater." Modern Irish Drama. Ed. John P. Harrington. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1991.
Holloway, Joseph. Joseph Holloway's Abbey Theater: A Selection from His Unpublished Journal, Impressions of a Dublin Playgoer. Ed. Robert Hogan and Michael J. O'Neill. London: Southern Illinois University Press, 1967.
Hunt, Hugh. The Abbey: Ireland's National Theater, 1904-1979. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979.