When Charles II died in 1685, James II became the King of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and the Catholic revival began. Securing legal and enduring toleration for his Catholic co-religionists was James' primary objective from 1685-1690 (Maguire 46). Consequently, less than six months after ascending to the throne, James made Catholic champion Richard Talbot earl of Tyrconnell. Within two years of assuming command of an Irish army regiment, Tyrconnell was appointed lord deputy of Ireland on 12 February 1687. While in command of his regiment, Tyrconnell catholicized and enlarged its composition by adding over eight hundred catholic soldiers (Maguire 46). By the time James appointed Tyrconnell lord deputy, 67 percent of the soldiers were Catholic and only a few Protestant officers had not been dismissed. Tyrconnell, acting as lord deputy, also filled important civil posts with Catholics. Within a year after Tyrconnell's own appointment, a majority of judges, magistrates, and the central administration were also Catholic (Maguire 49). As Catholic control increased, so did the fears of the Irish and English Protestants. Irish Protestants feared losing their land. In England, Ireland was viewed as a blueprint or precursor of James' plans for England (Maguire 34). Though James' capable army could suppress any local disorder, civil unrest grew in England and the threat of civil war concerned the English parliament (Maguire 36).
The possibility of a civil war in England sparked fears in the Dutch Republic as well. William of Orange, James' son in law and national leader of the Dutch Republic, had long hoped to supplement his forces with England's in order to mobilize against France's Louis XIV. A civil war would have left England in disarray and unable to contribute to William's campaign against King Louis. A civil war in England, an English coalition with France, an attack by Louis, and James choosing a Catholic as the successor to the throne instead of William's wife Mary, were all possibilities that spurred William and his forces to proceed into England and land in Devon on 5 November, 1688 (Maguire 37). To the Tory and Whig party members in England, William's arrival was not a surprise. Fearing civil war and chaos as well, leading Whigs and Tories invited William to take control of the country in July (Maguire xii). In September, William wrote the Declaration which stated his reasons for invading England and then distributed it throughout Europe.
James' decision to flee to France on 23 December 1688 and Williams' bloodless ascension to the throne completed what historians call, "The Glorious Revolution." William's concern about Ireland after gaining control of the throne remained minimal until James landed at Kinsale, Co. Cork in March of 1689 with French troops and munitions. To James, Ireland was the starting point from which he could regain the throne in England. Initially, William viewed Ireland only as a hurdle that had to be negotiated before he could concentrate on France and his rival Louis XIV. James' arrival in Ireland with French support forced William to focus his attention on the country that would become the battleground of the "Cogadh Da' Ri', " or war of the two kings (Maguire 61).
When James arrived in Ireland, "he found in Ireland a Catholic body politic loyal to the Crown but not loyal to the Crown's wider English interests" (Maguire 57). The Jacobite Parliament that James had indirectly created demanded the repeal of the Restoration land settlement. The Irish people cared less for the highly political power struggle between James, Louis, and William, and more about the local power struggle between Catholics and Protestants. Granted, William claimed to be the savior of Protestantism, and James, the supporter of Catholicism. Both, however, were proponents of tolerance and would not have begun the war in the name of religion alone. In the eyes of the divided Irish people, the outcome of the war would determine religious freedoms (Maguire 139). The common people of Ireland had few hopes of owning land regardless of what religion the country's leaders subscribed to (Maguire 139). Those few families who owned land, however, had considerable power to control of religious freedoms of the people. From 1689 to 1691, war engulfed Ireland.
James, who had never intended to release Ireland from the crown's control and still wished to return to England as King, had a difficult time leading the country. Fearing that he would lose the support of his Irish subjects, James acquiesced to legislation that would repeal the Restoration land settlement and a declaratory act that asserted that the Parliament of England could not legislate for Ireland (Byrne 489). James would not, however, convene courts of claims nor would he further the Catholic church in Ireland by offering anything more than "liberty of conscience (Byrne 490)." In order to raise funds for the needs of his war, James sponsored the brass, copper, and metal coinage of a million Lire called "gun-money." Before James could begin his march to England, however, he had to overcome the protestant dissenters in Ireland.
The siege of Irish Protestant stronghold Derry, proved more difficult than anticipated by the Jacobite regime. Hindered by a lack of equipment, an "undisciplined army, and an unenterprising command," Jacobite failed in their attempts to seize the city and instead had to resort to a blockade (Byrne 492). Under Major-general Kirk, two Williamite merchantmen broke through the boom that spanned the river and "removed any prospect that Derry would be starved into surrender" (Byrne 493). The resistance of Derry lowered the hopes of the Jacobites while providing the Williamites their first success in Ireland. Enniskillen, a second center of resistance, also defended itself well against overwhelming odds. These two Protestant bastions thwarted James' attempt to gain control of the north.
The Jacobite army's failures at Derry and Enniskillen were soon followed by disorder and widespread desertion (493). The French officers detested living in Ireland and their Irish allies (Maguire 62). James' hopes of defeating William in England were crushed, however, Tyrconnell "showed remarkable energy in rebuiding the army and organising the army to resist invasion" (493). William's February 22, 1689 proclamation that called for surrender with promises of property and toleration had failed to produce a Jacobite response. The Jacobites wouldn't submit to Protestant control without a fight. Consequently, William chose the duke of Schomberg to lead an Irish expedition that would bring Ireland under Williamite control.
Schomberg and his army of 19,000 landed in Belfast on 13 August 1689 and marched as far south as Dundalk, where he waited for supply ships to bring much needed provisions. After two months of waiting for adequate supplies, the wet and marshy terrain that Schomberg occupied just north of Dundalk took its toll. "Reports came in that the Williamite army was short of provisions and riddled with sickness (Byrne 495)." Hearing this, James decided to advance toward Dundalk and challenge Schomberg. Schomberg's subsequent decline provided the Jacobites a moral victory before both sides withdrew to winter quarters (Byrne 495).
Determined to gain control of Ireland, William and a fleet of 300 ships arrived in Belfast on 14 June 1690. Comprised of Dutch, Germans, Danes, English, and Huguenots, Williams army of 36,000 immediately marched south until he met James at the Boyne. James' force of 25,000 Irish and French troops waited behind the south bank. James, disregarding French advice to abandon the "indefensible" and "fordable" position on the Boyne, made the defeat of the Jacobites almost inevitable (Byrne 498). On the first day of bombardment, William was slightly wounded. His tactics, however, were sound. Sending a small force upstream to divert the enemy strength from the fords of Oldbridge, William concentrated the mass of his forces on a frontal attack. The diversion worked better than expected, causing James and the majority of his army to also move upstream. When William crossed at the fords of Oldbridge, he encountered only Tyrconnell and his cavalry. After a valiant battle in which Schomberg and George Walker, the hero of Derry, were killed, the surprised and outflanked Jacobite army retreated in disarray (Byrne 498). The first into Dublin, James then scurried to Kinsale and abandoned Ireland on July 4, 1690 (Byrne 498).
After the victory at the Boyne, William possessed control of Dublin and most of eastern Ireland. Although Tyrconnell and the French desired to make terms with the Williamites, "the darling of the army", Patrick Sarsfield, opposed surrender and prompted the Jacobite's greatest victory at Limerick (Byrne 501). The resistance had gathered momentum after turning back a Williamite attack at Athlone. A naturally strong position on the Shannon, Limerick provided the rallying Jacobites with another opportunity to foil William's progress. Sarsfield's heroics stopped a Williamite convoy which was carrying ammunition and heavy guns toward the Shannon (Byrne 501). The rest of the Irish resistance group courageously held the city and prompted William to return to England (Byrne 501).
The success at Limerick did not, however, keep the French from leaving. Full of dissension, the Irish resistance gained small victories while slowly giving up city after city to a larger and more equipped Williamite force led by Dutch general Ginkel. Offering security of estates to officers and the promise of other liberal measures, Ginkel avoided a second possible catastrophe at Limerick by finally convincing Sarsfield and the Irish resistance to quit the fight and come to the bargaining table. Many requests by the Irish leadership were granted. All those in the Irish army were given free transport to France if desired. For those who stayed in Ireland, the treaty of Limerick applied. The first article promised Catholics freedom of worship "as was consistent with the laws of Ireland" during the reign of King Charles II (Byrne 506). The second article granted pardon and property rights to those who held out in Limerick as well as those in any other Irish garrison as long as they swore allegiance to William (506). Twelve thousand men followed Sarsfield to France to become the renowned "wild geese" regiments of Ireland. Of the remaining men, two thousand went home, and a thousand joined William's forces in the Netherlands to fight against France (Byrne 506).
Although the Jacobite war may only have been a small wrinkle in William's greater scheme of defeating France's King Louis XIV, the war decided the balance of power in Ireland for the following two centuries. Ending the Catholic revival and securing James a spot in the bitter memories of many, the Jacobite war reestablished Protestant control of Ireland. Soon after the treaty of Limerick, William and Mary imposed a series of penal laws that limited the rights of Catholics even more. To ensure that Protestant ascendancy would never again be threatened, Catholics faced a future of renewed oppression and political impotence.
Even in present day Ireland, the effects of the Jacobite War are still visible. Tensions between Catholics and Protestants still exist and often result in violence. Annual celebrations mark the Williamite victories at the Boyne and Derry, while Irish Catholic songs eulogize those who held out at Limerick and Athlone (Byrne 487). Granted, the institutionalized oppression of the Catholics has dissipated. The memories and bitterness, however, continue to shape the Irish experience.
Bagwell, Richard III. Ireland Under the Stuarts. Great Britain: Holland, 1963. Vol.3 of 3.
Byrne, F.J, F.X. Martin, and T.W Moody. Early Modern Ireland. London: Oxford, 1976. Vol. III of A New History of Ireland. 9 Vols.
Maguire, W.A ed. Kings in Conflict. Belfast: Blackstaff, 1990.
Thomson, J. Pringle. The Jacobite Rebellions. London: G. Bell and Sons, 1914.